Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities
Unfortunately, computers are used all too often in ways that are developmentally inappropriate. One study (U.S. Congress, 1995) found that while "schools are steadily increasing their access to new technologies . . . most teachers use these technologies in traditional ways, including drills in basic skills and instructional games" (p. 103). Clements (1994) makes a similar point, noting, "What we as early childhood educators are presently doing most often with computers is what research and NAEYC guidelines say we should be doing least often" (p. 33). Papert (1998) stresses that computers have an impact on children when the computer provides concrete experiences, children have free access and control the learning experience, children and teachers learn together, teachers encourage peer tutoring, and teachers use computers to teach powerful ideas. Developmentally appropriate ways to use computers with 3- and 4-year-olds are different from the ways we use computers in kindergarten and the primary grades.
Software which is open-ended, exploratory in nature, and allows children choices and control is considered to be developmentally appropriate for young children. A direct relationship has been found between the kind of software children use and their engagement in the activities. Educational outcomes are also related to software type. Haugland (1992) found that children were more engaged in the computer when they were using developmentally appropriate programs as opposed to drill and practice type of software which did not allow child control. This latter type of software actually reduced children's creativity by 50% and led to children becoming passive reactors at the computer. Higher levels of creativity were found in children who used less structured and more choice-making software (Johnson, 1985). Another study, which looked at children's use of graphics programs, also found that children had greater interest in the computer when they used software that was responsive to their commands (Escobedo & Bhargava, 1991). The children were able to use the computer to manipulate and explore. When developmentally appropriate graphics programs were used, all of the preschool children, regardless of age or sex, were motivated to create symbolic representations.
Similar findings were made with interactive multimedia technology in which authoring software was used to create a program to increase children's concept of spatial relationships (Liu, 1996). Children, three to five years of age, who were given control of the program and allowed to determine what to select, spent more time at the computer than in other classroom activities and were able to respond correctly (67% of the time) to questions on spatial relationships.
Software type played a major role in a study exploring the relation between computers and constructivist thinking for three-year-olds (Brown, 1996). Out of three types of software (workbooks, word processing, and graphics), word processing was found to be most compatible with a child's ability to construct knowledge from their environment, since it allows child control and manipulation of information. The software offered flexibility and control, and made learning concepts more concrete and meaningful, all characteristics of developmentally appropriate software. A review of other studies on software confirm the value of word processing programs which allow children to experiment (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993).
Scaffolding is another element of software which has been found to be beneficial to young children's involvement with the computer (Clements et al., 1993). Some programs, such as word processing, give children the support they need to be independent. A positive relationship has been found between the level of scaffolding in computer assisted instruction (CAI) software and children's cognitive development (Shute & Miksad, 1997). In an experimental study conducted in South Australia, 51 preschool children were offered varying amounts of scaffolding in software which focused on counting, sorting, and word knowledge. Those who used programs with substantial amounts of scaffolding had increases in word knowledge, whereas those with minimal assistance or no software had lower levels of cognitive increases.
Scaffolding is a familiar concept in early childhood. Vygotsky, an early education theorist, recognized the importance of scaffolding in allowing young children to move ahead in the social environment and build new competencies (Berk & Winsler, 1995). It is important to know that a scaffolding element of software can effect children's independence and involvement with the computer and lead to increased cognitive development.
